- Dutch
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
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- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Verbs: Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I: Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases IIIa: Selected clauses/verb phrases (introduction)
- 1.0. Introduction
- 1.1. Main types of verb-frame alternation
- 1.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 1.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 1.4. Some apparent cases of verb-frame alternation
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa: Selected clauses/verb phrases (introduction)
- 4.0. Introduction
- 4.1. Semantic types of finite argument clauses
- 4.2. Finite and infinitival argument clauses
- 4.3. Control properties of verbs selecting an infinitival clause
- 4.4. Three main types of infinitival argument clauses
- 4.5. Non-main verbs
- 4.6. The distinction between main and non-main verbs
- 4.7. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb: Argument and complementive clauses
- 5.0. Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 5.4. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc: Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId: Verb clustering
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I: General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II: Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- 11.0. Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1 and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 11.4. Bibliographical notes
- 12 Word order in the clause IV: Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 14 Characterization and classification
- 15 Projection of noun phrases I: Complementation
- 15.0. Introduction
- 15.1. General observations
- 15.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 15.3. Clausal complements
- 15.4. Bibliographical notes
- 16 Projection of noun phrases II: Modification
- 16.0. Introduction
- 16.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 16.2. Premodification
- 16.3. Postmodification
- 16.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 16.3.2. Relative clauses
- 16.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 16.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 16.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 16.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 16.4. Bibliographical notes
- 17 Projection of noun phrases III: Binominal constructions
- 17.0. Introduction
- 17.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 17.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 17.3. Bibliographical notes
- 18 Determiners: Articles and pronouns
- 18.0. Introduction
- 18.1. Articles
- 18.2. Pronouns
- 18.3. Bibliographical notes
- 19 Numerals and quantifiers
- 19.0. Introduction
- 19.1. Numerals
- 19.2. Quantifiers
- 19.2.1. Introduction
- 19.2.2. Universal quantifiers: ieder/elk ‘every’ and alle ‘all’
- 19.2.3. Existential quantifiers: sommige ‘some’ and enkele ‘some’
- 19.2.4. Degree quantifiers: veel ‘many/much’ and weinig ‘few/little’
- 19.2.5. Modification of quantifiers
- 19.2.6. A note on the adverbial use of degree quantifiers
- 19.3. Quantitative er constructions
- 19.4. Partitive and pseudo-partitive constructions
- 19.5. Bibliographical notes
- 20 Predeterminers
- 20.0. Introduction
- 20.1. The universal quantifier al ‘all’ and its alternants
- 20.2. The predeterminer heel ‘all/whole’
- 20.3. A note on focus particles
- 20.4. Bibliographical notes
- 21 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- 22 Referential dependencies (binding)
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 23 Characteristics and classification
- 24 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 25 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 26 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 27 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 28 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 29 The partitive genitive construction
- 30 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 31 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 32 Characteristics and classification
- 32.0. Introduction
- 32.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 32.2. A syntactic classification of adpositional phrases
- 32.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 32.4. Borderline cases
- 32.5. Bibliographical notes
- 33 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 34 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 35 Syntactic uses of adpositional phrases
- 36 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 32 Characteristics and classification
- Coordination and Ellipsis
- Syntax
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- General
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- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
Since the input nouns of denominal nouns will have an argument structure only incidentally, they are less interesting from the perspective of inheritance of argument structure. Indeed, nouns such as vaderschapfatherhood, derived from the relational noun vaderfather, suggest that no inheritance takes place; example (235b) differs from (235a) in that the relation of the proper noun Jan to the head noun is completely different: whereas in (235a) Jan refers to the son of the referent of the full noun phrase, (235b) expresses that Jan is the father of a number of unmentioned persons. Therefore, the following discussion of denominal nouns will be brief; cf. De Haas & Trommelen (1993), Haeseryn et al. (1997), and Booij (2015a) for detailed overviews.
| a. | de vader van Jan | |
| the father of Jan | ||
| 'Jan's father' |
| b. | # | het vaderschap van Jan |
| the fatherhood of Jan |
The diminutive suffix -je and its allomorphs are probably one of the most productive nominal affixes (along with the plural affixes discussed in Section 14.1.1). Its phonetic realization depends on the phonological properties of the final syllable of the nominal stem.
| suffix | nominal stem | examples |
| -etje | after short stressed vowel followed by nasal /m/, /n/ or /N/ | kam ‘comb’ – kammetje pen ‘pen’ – pennetje slang ‘snake’ – slangetje |
| after short stressed vowel followed by liquid /l/ or /r/ | bel ‘bell’ – belletje kar ‘cart’ – karretje | |
| -tje | after other cases ending in nasal /n/ | tuin ‘garden’ – tuintje |
| after other cases ending in liquid /l/ or /r | zaal ‘room’ – zaaltje deur ‘door’ – deurtje | |
| after a long vowel, diphthong or schwa | la ‘drawer’ – laatje kooi ‘cage’ – kooitje tante ‘aunt’ – tantetje | |
| -pje | after other cases ending in nasal /m/ | raam ‘window’ – raampje |
| -kje | after -ing (pronounced /IN/) but not: with unstressed syllable preceding -ing with person nouns with the affix –ling | koning ‘king’ - kóninkje wándelingetje ‘stroll’ léerlingetje ‘little pupil’ |
| -je | all other cases | pak ‘parcel’ – pakje aap ‘monkey’ – aapje |
Some of the person suffixes discussed in Section 14.3.1.5 can also take a nominal base: for example, the suffix -er can be added to a (typically non-human) noun to form a noun denoting a person; cf. Van Santen (1992). We will call these derived nouns neutral person nouns, in contrast to the feminine person nouns that will be discussed shortly. Both the type of input noun and the semantic relation between the input noun and the derived noun vary.
The input noun of the neutral person names can be abstract such as wetenschapscience, concrete like kluishermitage or molenmill, and it can even be an abbreviation like PvdA (political party) or AOW (pension law). The referents of these derived nouns are all related to the denotation of the input noun. The noun wetenschapper denotes the set of people who practice science, kluizenaarhermit denotes the set of people who live in a secluded environment, and an AOW-er is someone who receives a pension on the basis of the old-age pension law.
A more systematic set is constituted by the geographical person names derived from geographical place names. Here we give examples derived by means of the suffixes -aan and -ees; cf. Section A23.3.3, sub II, for a complete overview of the affixes deriving geographical person nouns. Another systematic group is the group of feminine person nouns derived from neutral person nouns by means of the suffixes -in, -e, and -es (among others).
| person noun | nominal stem | derived form |
| neutral -er -aar | wetenschap ‘science’ | wetenschapper ‘scientist’ |
| kluis ‘hermitage’ molen ‘mill’ | kluizenaar ‘hermit’ molenaar ‘miller’ | |
| PvdA ‘labor party’ AOW ‘old age pension’ | PvdA-er ‘labor party member’ AOW-er ‘old age pensioner’ | |
| geographical -er -aan -ees | Amsterdam Holland | Amsterdammer Hollander ‘Dutchman’ |
| Amerika ‘America’ Afrika ‘Africa’ | Amerikaan ‘American’ Afrikaan ‘African’ | |
| Vietnam China | Vietnamees ‘Vietnamese’ Chinees ‘Chinese’ | |
| feminine -in -es -e | vriend ‘friend’ keizer ‘emperor’ | vriendin ‘girl-friend’ keizerin ‘empress’ |
| voogd ‘guardian’ baron ‘baron’ | voogdes ‘(woman) guardian’ barones ‘baroness’ | |
| agent ‘policeman’ student ‘student’ | agente ‘policewoman’ studente ‘female student’ |
In addition to the more productive affixes discussed above, there are a number of unproductive endings that cause a specific semantic change. The most common of these endings are listed in the following subsections.
Derived nouns ending in -dom denote a group of entities each of which belongs to the denotation of the input noun, as in (236a&b), or to an area (historically) ruled or governed by the entity denoted by the input noun, as in (236c&d).
| a. | mens ‘human being’ |
| a'. | mensdom ‘human race’ |
| b. | priester ‘priest’ |
| b'. | priesterdom ‘priesthood’ |
| c. | prins ‘prince’ |
| c'. | prinsdom ‘principality’ |
| d. | bisschop ‘bishop’ |
| d'. | bisdom ‘bishopric’ |
A noun followed by the suffix -schap can refer either to a specific capacity, function, or rank, as in the examples in (237a-c), or to a branch of industry, as in (237d-g).
| a. | moeder ‘mother’ |
| a'. | moederschap ‘motherhood’ |
| b. | vijand ‘enemy’ |
| b'. | vijandschap ‘enmity’ |
| c. | leider ‘leader’ |
| c'. | leiderschap ‘leadership’ |
| d. | agent ‘agent’ |
| d'. | agentschap ‘branch office’ |
| e. | genoot ‘fellow’ |
| e'. | genootschap ‘society’ |
| f'. | landbouw ‘agriculture’ |
| f'. | landbouwschap ‘agricultural board’ |
| g. | water ‘water’ |
| g'. | waterschap ‘district water board’ |
This compound affix typically changes an individual noun, which denotes a particular entity, into a mass noun, which denotes a group of such entities.
| a. | berg ‘mountain’ |
| a'. | gebergte ‘mountain range’ |
| b. | boef ‘villain’ |
| b'. | geboefte ‘scum’ |
| c. | been ‘bone’ |
| c'. | gebeente ‘bones/skeleton’ |
| d. | steen ‘stone’ |
| d'. | gesteente ‘rock’ |
| e. | vogel ‘bird’ |
| e'. | gevogelte ‘fowl’ |
