- Dutch
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
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- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Verbs: Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I: Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases IIIa: Selected clauses/verb phrases (introduction)
- 1.0. Introduction
- 1.1. Main types of verb-frame alternation
- 1.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 1.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 1.4. Some apparent cases of verb-frame alternation
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa: Selected clauses/verb phrases (introduction)
- 4.0. Introduction
- 4.1. Semantic types of finite argument clauses
- 4.2. Finite and infinitival argument clauses
- 4.3. Control properties of verbs selecting an infinitival clause
- 4.4. Three main types of infinitival argument clauses
- 4.5. Non-main verbs
- 4.6. The distinction between main and non-main verbs
- 4.7. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb: Argument and complementive clauses
- 5.0. Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 5.4. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc: Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId: Verb clustering
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I: General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II: Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- 11.0. Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1 and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 11.4. Bibliographical notes
- 12 Word order in the clause IV: Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 14 Characterization and classification
- 15 Projection of noun phrases I: Complementation
- 15.0. Introduction
- 15.1. General observations
- 15.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 15.3. Clausal complements
- 15.4. Bibliographical notes
- 16 Projection of noun phrases II: Modification
- 16.0. Introduction
- 16.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 16.2. Premodification
- 16.3. Postmodification
- 16.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 16.3.2. Relative clauses
- 16.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 16.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 16.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 16.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 16.4. Bibliographical notes
- 17 Projection of noun phrases III: Binominal constructions
- 17.0. Introduction
- 17.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 17.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 17.3. Bibliographical notes
- 18 Determiners: Articles and pronouns
- 18.0. Introduction
- 18.1. Articles
- 18.2. Pronouns
- 18.3. Bibliographical notes
- 19 Numerals and quantifiers
- 19.0. Introduction
- 19.1. Numerals
- 19.2. Quantifiers
- 19.2.1. Introduction
- 19.2.2. Universal quantifiers: ieder/elk ‘every’ and alle ‘all’
- 19.2.3. Existential quantifiers: sommige ‘some’ and enkele ‘some’
- 19.2.4. Degree quantifiers: veel ‘many/much’ and weinig ‘few/little’
- 19.2.5. Modification of quantifiers
- 19.2.6. A note on the adverbial use of degree quantifiers
- 19.3. Quantitative er constructions
- 19.4. Partitive and pseudo-partitive constructions
- 19.5. Bibliographical notes
- 20 Predeterminers
- 20.0. Introduction
- 20.1. The universal quantifier al ‘all’ and its alternants
- 20.2. The predeterminer heel ‘all/whole’
- 20.3. A note on focus particles
- 20.4. Bibliographical notes
- 21 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- 22 Referential dependencies (binding)
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 23 Characteristics and classification
- 24 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 25 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 26 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 27 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 28 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 29 The partitive genitive construction
- 30 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 31 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 32 Characteristics and classification
- 32.0. Introduction
- 32.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 32.2. A syntactic classification of adpositional phrases
- 32.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 32.4. Borderline cases
- 32.5. Bibliographical notes
- 33 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 34 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 35 Syntactic uses of adpositional phrases
- 36 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 32 Characteristics and classification
- Coordination and Ellipsis
- Syntax
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- General
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- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
The adjective litje ‘small’ used to have an irregular neuter form littik. Nowadays, the neuter from litjet is in use. (Compare the Low German form ’n grotet Huus, which is often used instead of ’n groot Huus.)
Some adjectives or determiners cannot be inflected, for several reasons. (Determiners are included in this section. Some of them will be discussed in the sections on pronouns as well.)
Adjectives like allene ‘alone’ are only used predicatively (die Mon waas allene‘the man was alone’, *die allene Mon‘the alone man’).
Possessive adjectives like mienen, dienen (etc.) are also used predicatively, e.g.: aal wät mienen is, is ook dienen ‘all that is mine is also yours’.
Modern material adjectives like plastik are indeclinable: dälich hät man plastik Wonnen ‘today they have plastic bins’.
Geographical adjectives ending in -er, -ker or -tjer, -ster are indeclinable: ju Seelter Sproake ‘the Saterland Frisian language’, do Uutändjer Sträiten ‘the streets of Utende’, ’t Romelster August-Märked ‘Ramsloh’s august fair’.
Several quantifying adjectives (or determiners) are indeclinable: in älke Huus ‘in every house’, allerhound Seken ‘all kinds of things’, do bee Brure ‘both brothers’, fuul Ljude ‘many people’, (gans) min Autos ‘(very) few cars’, (noch) moor Soarten ‘(even) more species’, träierlai Frjuunde ‘three kinds of friends’, (do) uur Wäänte ‘(the) other boys’. However, some speakers inflect älk(e) ‘every’ like a regular adjective. Likewise, uurs(e) is in use today as a regularly inflected alternative to uur. The adjective min ‘few’ is rarely used. Instead, people often say nit fuul ‘not much/many’ or (man) ’n bitjen ‘(just) a bit’.
The adjective fuul is inflected in a particular construction: aal do fule Moansken ‘all those numerous people’.
The quantifying determiner poor ‘a few’ is indeclinable as well, e.g.: poor Buren ‘a few farmers’. This is an abridged form of ’n poor‘a pair of’, compare (‘n) bitjen ‘a bit (of)’.
The (plural) quantifying adjectives enige ‘some’, morere ‘multiple’ and oankelde ‘a few’ are inflected like normal adjectives. The quantifying adjective monich is inflected like a normal adjective as well (e.g. monige Ljude ‘many people’), but monich can also be used as a predeterminer: monich ’n Huus ‘many a house’ or monich wäkke ‘many people’.
The interrogative and indefinite determiner wäkke ‘what/which; some’ is inflected wäkker (m.), wäkke (f.), wäkker (n.) and wäkke (pl.), according to Fort’s dictionary (2015). In the sources, we find different forms, however. For instance wäkken ‘some people’ or wäk and wäkket (which [n.]).
The interrogative determiner wät foar ‘what (kind of)’ is indeclinable: wie häbe blouked wät foar ’n Nutsen die Kunstdunger broacht hät ‘we have seen what advantage fertiliser has offered’. Likewise: wät foar ’n riezige Rookmasse ‘what a gigantic lot of smoke’, wät foar Malöör ‘what a misery’, wät foar Hiere ‘what kind of hairs’.
The quantifying adjective alle ‘all’ is used attributively with plural nouns, just like enige ‘some’ or morere ‘several’, e.g.: alle Dege ‘all days’. Indeclinable aal modifies the whole noun phrase, e.g.: aal do Noachte ‘all nights’, aal hiere Sustere ‘all of her sisters’. The latter option is obligatory in the singular: aal ju Molk ‘all (the) milk’, aal dät Jäild ‘all (the) money’. There are exceptions to this generalisation, but they strike one as either fixed expressions or German calques: aal Mugelk ‘everything possible’, uut alle Wareld ‘from all the world’, alle stoatlike Gewalt ‘all stately authority’, alles Jood ‘all weeds’ (cf. German alles Unkraut). Aal is also used as a floating quantifier: dät is aal neen Gould wät glimt ‘not all that shines is gold’ (lit.: ‘what shines is not all gold’).
The quantifying adjective gans can modify a proper noun (i.e. a geonym): in gans Seelterlound ‘in all Saterland’, gans Swottefoan ‘all Swottefoan (Black-more)’. Historically, gans is the (Low) German replacement of heel, which in its turn exclusively means ‘intact’ nowadays. (Note that geonyms like Swottefoan are usually neuter, e.g. dät oolde Jerusalem ‘ancient Jerusalem’.)
Prenominal adjectives situated between possessive determiners and neuter nouns are often inflected as if they were in an indefinite context, e.g. mien ljoof (or: ljowet) Wucht ‘my sweet daughter’.
Possessive determiners like uus ‘our’ and hiere ‘her, their’ will be discussed separately (see: pronouns).
Many fixed expressions contain case endings from older language stages or borrowed from High or Low German. For instance: in fuller Flamme ‘ablaze’ (lit. ‘in full-er flame’). In the case of ju gjuchter Hound ‘the right hand’ and ju linker Hound ‘the left hand’, the original case endings have become intransparent. Besides, people tend to say ju linke Hound (etc.) nowadays, with regular adjectival endings.
The attributive adjective touken (from reconstructed toukumende, ‘coming’) is indeclinable, e.g.: touken Täisdai ‘next Tuesday’. The indeclinable adjective sälger ‘late, deceased’ is placed after the noun phrase: din Bäbe sälger ‘your late father’ (cf. Middle Low German sêliger gedechtnisse ‘of blissful remembrance’).
The element boas- in ’n Boaskäärdel ‘an impressive man’ (literally: ‘a boss guy’) is not an adjective. It is considered to be an affixoid (i.e. a modifying part of a compound that has almost become a prefix). It is not (anymore) a word, hence the spelling without a space.