- Dutch
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
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- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Verbs: Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I: Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases IIIa: Selected clauses/verb phrases (introduction)
- 1.0. Introduction
- 1.1. Main types of verb-frame alternation
- 1.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 1.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 1.4. Some apparent cases of verb-frame alternation
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa: Selected clauses/verb phrases (introduction)
- 4.0. Introduction
- 4.1. Semantic types of finite argument clauses
- 4.2. Finite and infinitival argument clauses
- 4.3. Control properties of verbs selecting an infinitival clause
- 4.4. Three main types of infinitival argument clauses
- 4.5. Non-main verbs
- 4.6. The distinction between main and non-main verbs
- 4.7. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb: Argument and complementive clauses
- 5.0. Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 5.4. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc: Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId: Verb clustering
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I: General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II: Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- 11.0. Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1 and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 11.4. Bibliographical notes
- 12 Word order in the clause IV: Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 14 Characterization and classification
- 15 Projection of noun phrases I: Complementation
- 15.0. Introduction
- 15.1. General observations
- 15.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 15.3. Clausal complements
- 15.4. Bibliographical notes
- 16 Projection of noun phrases II: Modification
- 16.0. Introduction
- 16.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 16.2. Premodification
- 16.3. Postmodification
- 16.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 16.3.2. Relative clauses
- 16.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 16.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 16.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 16.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 16.4. Bibliographical notes
- 17 Projection of noun phrases III: Binominal constructions
- 17.0. Introduction
- 17.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 17.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 17.3. Bibliographical notes
- 18 Determiners: Articles and pronouns
- 18.0. Introduction
- 18.1. Articles
- 18.2. Pronouns
- 18.3. Bibliographical notes
- 19 Numerals and quantifiers
- 19.0. Introduction
- 19.1. Numerals
- 19.2. Quantifiers
- 19.2.1. Introduction
- 19.2.2. Universal quantifiers: ieder/elk ‘every’ and alle ‘all’
- 19.2.3. Existential quantifiers: sommige ‘some’ and enkele ‘some’
- 19.2.4. Degree quantifiers: veel ‘many/much’ and weinig ‘few/little’
- 19.2.5. Modification of quantifiers
- 19.2.6. A note on the adverbial use of degree quantifiers
- 19.3. Quantitative er constructions
- 19.4. Partitive and pseudo-partitive constructions
- 19.5. Bibliographical notes
- 20 Predeterminers
- 20.0. Introduction
- 20.1. The universal quantifier al ‘all’ and its alternants
- 20.2. The predeterminer heel ‘all/whole’
- 20.3. A note on focus particles
- 20.4. Bibliographical notes
- 21 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- 22 Referential dependencies (binding)
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 23 Characteristics and classification
- 24 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 25 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 26 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 27 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 28 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 29 The partitive genitive construction
- 30 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 31 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 32 Characteristics and classification
- 32.0. Introduction
- 32.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 32.2. A syntactic classification of adpositional phrases
- 32.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 32.4. Borderline cases
- 32.5. Bibliographical notes
- 33 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 34 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 35 Syntactic uses of adpositional phrases
- 36 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 32 Characteristics and classification
- Coordination and Ellipsis
- Syntax
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- General
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- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
Relative pronouns are inflected for gender, number and case. Only masculine relative pronouns are formally specified for case (i.e. nominative die, oblique dän).
| die (m. nom.), dän (m. obl.); ju (f.); dät (wät) (n.); do (pl.) |
Relative pronouns agree with their antecedent in grammatical gender.
| Sjuch dat junge Wucht, dät man do wielde Dierte pries rakt. ‘Look that young girl whom they sacrifice to the wild animals.’ |
When the antecedent is something unspecified like dät ‘that’ and aal ‘everything’, the relative pronoun wät is used. This is often also the case when the antecedent is an inanimate neuter noun.
| Muurjen un aal, wät deermäd tou dwoon hiede. ‘Bricklaying and everything that was related to that.’ Dät Jeeld, wät iek fertjoonde. ‘The money I earned.’ |
The relative pronoun wät can refer to non-neuter inanimate things.
| ’n Stede, wät wied genouch fon do Huze owe waas. ‘A spot which was sufficiently far removed from the houses.’ |
Relative pronouns are used in restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses.
| Dän Mon, dän dät grote Skip heerde. ‘The man to whom that large ship belonged.’ |
| Sin Babe, die Hinnerk hat. ‘His father, whose name is Hinnerk.’ |
A nominative relative pronoun can be accompanied by apparently meaningless adverb deer ‘there’. This happens mostly (but not always) in restrictive relative clauses.
| Hie spitsede de Ore as ’n Kat, die deer grummeljen heert. ‘He pricked up his ears like a cat who hears the thunder.’ |
Relative clauses can also be created in other ways.
The inflected relative pronoun wäkke occurs sporadically in written texts: ’n Pitsche wäkke bie ‘t Sloon knalt ‘a whip which bangs while beating’.
Relative clauses can also be made by the use of the R-pronoun wier (or archaic deer) and several adpositions. In prepositional relative clauses with inanimate antecedents, this construction is obligatory.
| Die Wain, wier jo mäd kemen sunt. ‘The cart with which they have come.’ |
| ?? Die Wain, mäd dän jo kemen sunt. [Only through German interference.] |
| Die Mon, wier jo mäd kemen sunt. ‘The man with whom they have come.’ |
| Die Mon, mäd dän jo kemen sunt. (id.) |
This construction offers a way of expressing possessor or partitive relationships, as the original pronoun wäls ‘whose’ has become as good as obsolete (Laker & Kramer forthcoming).
| Dät Skäin, wier iek ju Dore fon moaked häbe. ‘The barn of which I have made the door.’ |
Another way of creating possessive relative sentences is the combination of a resumptive demonstrative pronoun with a possessive pronoun. Resumptive demonstrative pronouns may well agree with the natural gender of the antecedent.
| Dät Wieuw, ju hiere Woain iek koped häbe. ‘The woman whose carriage I bought.’ |
Alternatively, one could use an indirect object construction to convey the same idea.
| Mien ouer Möie, ju die Mon oustuurwen was. ‘My other aunt, whose husband had passed away.’ (Literally: ‘to whom the husband had passed away’.) |
Free relative clauses can be expresses in several ways.
With die or die deer:
| Die ze sik ansponget, die kon fljoge. ‘Whoever puts them (te wings) on, can fly’ |
| Do deer in ’t Huus blieuwe, do fodderje dät Fäi. ‘Those who stay at home, feed the cattle.’ |
With indeclinable wäl ‘who(ever)’ or wät ‘what’:
| Wäl ’n Buur bedrjoge wul, mout ädder apstounde. ‘Whover wants to deceive a farmer, has to rise up early.’ |
| Wät licht ferjeten wädt. ‘What is easily forgotten.’ |
Free relative what can refer to people (‘the kind of people that’):
| Wät so’n oolden Imker was, wiste dät goud. ‘Anyone of those old beekeeper knew that.’ (Literally: ‘What such an old bee-keeper was.’) |
- Laker & Kramer (forthcoming): Laker, Stephen & Pyt Kramer. Forthc. 2024. Relativsätze im Saterfriesischen. [Studies in Memory of Hans Frede Nielsen.] Nowele Supplement Series vol. 34. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
