- Dutch
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
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- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Verbs: Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I: Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases IIIa: Selected clauses/verb phrases (introduction)
- 1.0. Introduction
- 1.1. Main types of verb-frame alternation
- 1.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 1.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 1.4. Some apparent cases of verb-frame alternation
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa: Selected clauses/verb phrases (introduction)
- 4.0. Introduction
- 4.1. Semantic types of finite argument clauses
- 4.2. Finite and infinitival argument clauses
- 4.3. Control properties of verbs selecting an infinitival clause
- 4.4. Three main types of infinitival argument clauses
- 4.5. Non-main verbs
- 4.6. The distinction between main and non-main verbs
- 4.7. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb: Argument and complementive clauses
- 5.0. Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 5.4. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc: Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId: Verb clustering
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I: General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II: Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- 11.0. Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1 and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 11.4. Bibliographical notes
- 12 Word order in the clause IV: Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 14 Characterization and classification
- 15 Projection of noun phrases I: Complementation
- 15.0. Introduction
- 15.1. General observations
- 15.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 15.3. Clausal complements
- 15.4. Bibliographical notes
- 16 Projection of noun phrases II: Modification
- 16.0. Introduction
- 16.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 16.2. Premodification
- 16.3. Postmodification
- 16.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 16.3.2. Relative clauses
- 16.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 16.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 16.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 16.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 16.4. Bibliographical notes
- 17 Projection of noun phrases III: Binominal constructions
- 17.0. Introduction
- 17.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 17.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 17.3. Bibliographical notes
- 18 Determiners: Articles and pronouns
- 18.0. Introduction
- 18.1. Articles
- 18.2. Pronouns
- 18.3. Bibliographical notes
- 19 Numerals and quantifiers
- 19.0. Introduction
- 19.1. Numerals
- 19.2. Quantifiers
- 19.2.1. Introduction
- 19.2.2. Universal quantifiers: ieder/elk ‘every’ and alle ‘all’
- 19.2.3. Existential quantifiers: sommige ‘some’ and enkele ‘some’
- 19.2.4. Degree quantifiers: veel ‘many/much’ and weinig ‘few/little’
- 19.2.5. Modification of quantifiers
- 19.2.6. A note on the adverbial use of degree quantifiers
- 19.3. Quantitative er constructions
- 19.4. Partitive and pseudo-partitive constructions
- 19.5. Bibliographical notes
- 20 Predeterminers
- 20.0. Introduction
- 20.1. The universal quantifier al ‘all’ and its alternants
- 20.2. The predeterminer heel ‘all/whole’
- 20.3. A note on focus particles
- 20.4. Bibliographical notes
- 21 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- 22 Referential dependencies (binding)
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 23 Characteristics and classification
- 24 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 25 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 26 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 27 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 28 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 29 The partitive genitive construction
- 30 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 31 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 32 Characteristics and classification
- 32.0. Introduction
- 32.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 32.2. A syntactic classification of adpositional phrases
- 32.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 32.4. Borderline cases
- 32.5. Bibliographical notes
- 33 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 34 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 35 Syntactic uses of adpositional phrases
- 36 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 32 Characteristics and classification
- Coordination and Ellipsis
- Syntax
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- General
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- General
- Morphology
- Morphology
- 1 Word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 1.1.1 Compounds and their heads
- 1.1.2 Special types of compounds
- 1.1.2.1 Affixoids
- 1.1.2.2 Coordinative compounds
- 1.1.2.3 Synthetic compounds and complex pseudo-participles
- 1.1.2.4 Reduplicative compounds
- 1.1.2.5 Phrase-based compounds
- 1.1.2.6 Elative compounds
- 1.1.2.7 Exocentric compounds
- 1.1.2.8 Linking elements
- 1.1.2.9 Separable Complex Verbs and Particle Verbs
- 1.1.2.10 Noun Incorporation Verbs
- 1.1.2.11 Gapping
- 1.2 Derivation
- 1.3 Minor patterns of word formation
- 1.1 Compounding
- 2 Inflection
- 1 Word formation
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
- 0 Introduction to the AP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of APs
- 2 Complementation of APs
- 3 Modification and degree quantification of APs
- 4 Comparison by comparative, superlative and equative
- 5 Attribution of APs
- 6 Predication of APs
- 7 The partitive adjective construction
- 8 Adverbial use of APs
- 9 Participles and infinitives as APs
- Nouns and Noun Phrases (NPs)
- 0 Introduction to the NP
- 1 Characteristics and Classification of NPs
- 2 Complementation of NPs
- 3 Modification of NPs
- 3.1 Modification of NP by Determiners and APs
- 3.2 Modification of NP by PP
- 3.3 Modification of NP by adverbial clauses
- 3.4 Modification of NP by possessors
- 3.5 Modification of NP by relative clauses
- 3.6 Modification of NP in a cleft construction
- 3.7 Free relative clauses and selected interrogative clauses
- 4 Partitive noun constructions and constructions related to them
- 4.1 The referential partitive construction
- 4.2 The partitive construction of abstract quantity
- 4.3 The numerical partitive construction
- 4.4 The partitive interrogative construction
- 4.5 Adjectival, nominal and nominalised partitive quantifiers
- 4.6 Kind partitives
- 4.7 Partitive predication with a preposition
- 4.8 Bare nominal attribution
- 5 Articles and names
- 6 Pronouns
- 7 Quantifiers, determiners and predeterminers
- 8 Interrogative pronouns
- 9 R-pronouns and the indefinite expletive
- 10 Syntactic functions of Noun Phrases
- Adpositions and Adpositional Phrases (PPs)
- 0 Introduction to the PP
- 1 Characteristics and classification of PPs
- 2 Complementation of PPs
- 3 Modification of PPs
- 4 Bare (intransitive) adpositions
- 5 Predication of PPs
- 6 Form and distribution of adpositions with respect to staticity and construction type
- 7 Adpositional complements and adverbials
- Verbs and Verb Phrases (VPs)
- 0 Introduction to the VP in Saterland Frisian
- 1 Characteristics and classification of verbs
- 2 Unergative and unaccusative subjects and the auxiliary of the perfect
- 3 Evidentiality in relation to perception and epistemicity
- 4 Types of to-infinitival constituents
- 5 Predication
- 5.1 The auxiliary of being and its selection restrictions
- 5.2 The auxiliary of going and its selection restrictions
- 5.3 The auxiliary of continuation and its selection restrictions
- 5.4 The auxiliary of coming and its selection restrictions
- 5.5 Modal auxiliaries and their selection restrictions
- 5.6 Auxiliaries of body posture and aspect and their selection restrictions
- 5.7 Transitive verbs of predication
- 5.8 The auxiliary of doing used as a semantically empty finite auxiliary
- 5.9 Supplementive predication
- 6 The verbal paradigm, irregularity and suppletion
- 7 Verb Second and the word order in main and embedded clauses
- 8 Various aspects of clause structure
- Adjectives and adjective phrases (APs)
Demonstratives serve to make referents more specific, linguistically speaking. The distal demonstrative historically derives from the definite article in Old Frisian. In Saterland Frisian the distal demonstrative is the same as the definite article. A non-ambiguous series of distal demonstratives has been created for emphasis and deixis, and its forms are based on combining the imperative of a verb of seeing with the definite article (slash distal demonstrative). The ordinary and emphatic distal demonstratives have four forms to their paradigm, not counting the non-nominative form for the MSC SG. The proximate demonstrative only has two distinct forms. The distal demonstrative is the unmarked demonstrative in Saterland Frisian.
More details about the demonstrative article can be found in the sections below.
The proximate demonstrative refers to persons and things which are close-by. It has the following paradigm:
| MSC SG (NOM/N-NOM) | FEM SG | NTR SG | PL |
| dusse (dussen) | dusse | dut | dusse |
It can be seen that the neuter singular is the most distinct form. The feminine is homophonous to the plural and to the MSC SG. And the opposition -e / -en is also used to express the contrast between nominative and non-nominative, which only exists for the masculine singular. The paradigm is almost the same as the one of attributive APs, except that APs do not have the distinction between nominative and non-nominative case, employing the -en form for the masculine singular.
The distal demonstrative and the emphatic distal demonstrative have been given below. The non-nominative form of the masculine singular has been given in brackets:
| MSC SG | FEM SG | NTR SG | PL | |
| Distal | die (än) | ju | dät | do |
| Distal emphatic | krie (krän) | krju | krät | kro |
Saterland Frisian developed an series of emphatic distal demonstratives based on the root kr-, which derives from the expression kiek ‘see’ followed by the demonstrative. The word kiek lost its final consonant and the vowel was weakened. In this way, the paradigm developed from the intermediate forms: kedie > krie, keju > krju, kedät > krät, kedo > kro. Note that this explanation fails to account for the presence of a -r- in krju, as there was no -d-. There must have been paradigmatic pressure to keep the same prefix throughout the paradigm. Thus the phrase kiek + demonstrative developed into the root kr- + demonstrative, which thus received the same rhyme as the non-emphatic demonstrative.
When used independently, the distal demonstrative (or definite article) functions as a topic pronoun. The following examples illustrate its use as a topic pronoun (put in bold):
| In een Chronik häbe iek knu oaber lezen, dät in een Täärp al uum 1900 die Kilmerstuute fon alle Noabere mädnunner broacht wuden is. Die liech do oaber noch nit ap een Laadere as dälich. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| in a chronicle have I just now but read, that in a village already around 1900 the.MSC.SG peat.bread of all neighbours with.each.other brought become is the.MSC.SG laid then but yet not on a ladder as today | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| But I just now read in a chronicle that in a village already around 1900 the peat bread was brought by all neighbours together. But it didn’t lie on a ladder yet like today. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Knu | häbe | iek | dusse | Geschichte | lezen. | Ju | is | fon | Hein Bredendiek. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Just now | have | I | this.FEM.SG | history | read | it.FEM.SG | is | of | Hein Bredendiek | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| I just now read this history. It is by Hein Bredendiek. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Wan | dät | Freeten | goar | waas. | Dät | wieren | dan | uk | maast | littje | Tuwwelke. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| when | the.NTR.SG | grub | cooked | was | it.NTR.SG | was | then | also | most | small | potatoes | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| When the grub was ready. And so it was mostly small potatoes. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Do | Wuchtere un | Wäänte | fon | Buuren | kreegen | niks. | Do | hieden | fonsäärm | uk | jädden | mäd | uus | ieten. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| the.PL | daughters and | sons | of | farmers | got | nothing | they.PL | had | of.course | also | eager | with | us | ate | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| The daughters and sons of farmers got nothing. Of course, they would have liked to eat with us. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Articles can also be used as pronouns in the middle field (not illustrated). It seems that the use of articles as pronouns in the middle field is on the rise in the language, at the cost of the ordinary pronouns. The distribution of antecedents for the demonstrative functioning as topic pronoun is rather a complex matter, as is the question of the relation of topic pronouns to ordinary (personal) pronouns. The example in (3) illustrates that the distal demonstrative 3SG functions semantically and syntactically as a 3PL, or, alternatively, the topic pronoun 3SG functions as such, for the same fact is found in West Frisian and Dutch. There’s an issue here which is diffuclt to formulate.
The k(r)- prefix is also found outside the paradigm of the distal demonstrative. It combines with nu ‘now’ to produce knu ‘recently’. And it combines with junder / junner ‘yonder, over there’ to produce kjunner / kjunder ‘yonder, over there’. And finally it combines with the adverbial pronoun of place deer ‘there’ to produce kreer ‘there’. Note that deer cannot be replaced with kreer, in case deer functions as a relative pronoun. Nor have we found kreer functioning as an adpositional complement, or as an introductory pronoun for indefinite sentences, but this should be further investigated. It should also be investigated whether Saterland Frisian allows of rightward placement of object NPs introduced by a distal demonstrative in imperative clauses. Finally, demonstratives feature prominently in epithets, which should be further investigated.