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- Afrikaans
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- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Coordination and Ellipsis
- Nouns and noun phrases (JANUARI 2025)
- 15 Characterization and classification
- 16 Projection of noun phrases I: Complementation
- 16.0. Introduction
- 16.1. General observations
- 16.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 16.3. Clausal complements
- 16.4. Bibliographical notes
- 17 Projection of noun phrases II: Modification
- 17.0. Introduction
- 17.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 17.2. Premodification
- 17.3. Postmodification
- 17.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 17.3.2. Relative clauses
- 17.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 17.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 17.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 17.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 17.4. Bibliographical notes
- 18 Projection of noun phrases III: Binominal constructions
- 18.0. Introduction
- 18.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 18.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 18.3. Bibliographical notes
- 19 Determiners: Articles and pronouns
- 19.0. Introduction
- 19.1. Articles
- 19.2. Pronouns
- 19.3. Bibliographical notes
- 20 Numerals and quantifiers
- 20.0. Introduction
- 20.1. Numerals
- 20.2. Quantifiers
- 20.2.1. Introduction
- 20.2.2. Universal quantifiers: ieder/elk ‘every’ and alle ‘all’
- 20.2.3. Existential quantifiers: sommige ‘some’ and enkele ‘some’
- 20.2.4. Degree quantifiers: veel ‘many/much’ and weinig ‘few/little’
- 20.2.5. Modification of quantifiers
- 20.2.6. A note on the adverbial use of degree quantifiers
- 20.3. Quantitative er constructions
- 20.4. Partitive and pseudo-partitive constructions
- 20.5. Bibliographical notes
- 21 Predeterminers
- 21.0. Introduction
- 21.1. The universal quantifier al ‘all’ and its alternants
- 21.2. The predeterminer heel ‘all/whole’
- 21.3. A note on focus particles
- 21.4. Bibliographical notes
- 22 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- 23 Referential dependencies (binding)
- Syntax
-
- General
Section 2.4 has shown that pronominalization of the adjective (phrase) is possible. In (173a), we repeat an example in which the pronoun het'it' performs the same function as the full AP bang voor honden'of dogs'. In (173b), on the other hand, the pronoun replaces only the adjective bang'afraid'; the function of the PP-complement of the adjective is performed by the PP voor spinnen'of spiders'. If the adjective is modified by means of an intensifier, pronominalization is also possible. Section 3.4 has shown, however, that in some cases the addition of erg is required to license pronominalization of the adjective, whereas in other cases the addition of erg leads to ungrammaticality.
| Jan is [AP | bang | voor honden] .. | ||
| Jan is | afraid | of dogs .. |
| a. | .. en | ik | ben | het | ook. | |
| .. and | I | am | it | too |
| b. | .. en | ik | ben | het | voor spinnen. | |
| .. and | I | am | it | for spiders |
If the adjective (phrase) is pronominalized, it is still possible to express comparison. This is shown in (174), in which the comparative meaning is expressed by the adjectives meer'more' and minder'less', which are also used in the periphrastic comparative construction. This possibility is remarkable given that the majorative form of bang is banger and not *meer bang.
| a. | Jan is vreselijk | bang voor honden, | maar | ik | ben | het | nog | meer | (*erg). | |
| Jan is terribly | afraid of dogs | but | I | am | it | even | more | much | ||
| 'Jan is terribly afraid of dogs, but Iʼm even more so.' | ||||||||||
| b. | Jan is niet | erg | bang voor honden, | maar | ik | ben | het | nog | minder | (*erg). | |
| Jan is not | very | afraid of dogs | but | I | am | it | even | less | much | ||
| 'Jan is very afraid of dogs, but Iʼm even less so.' | |||||||||||
The examples in (174) also show that the addition of erg is illicit, but it should be noted that (174a) alternates with (175), in which the comparative form erger'worse' is used.
| Jan is vreselijk | bang voor honden, | maar | ik | ben | het | nog | erger. | ||
| Jan is terribly | afraid of dogs | but | I | am | it | even | worse | ||
| 'Jan is terribly afraid of dogs, but Iʼm even more so.' | |||||||||
In (176a&b), we find comparable cases in which the superlative is expressed by the element het meest'the most' and het minst'the least', which are also used in the periphrastic superlative construction, despite the fact that the maximative of bang is the morphologically complex form bangst.
| a. | Iedereen is vreselijk bang voor honden, | maar | ik | ben | het | het meest | (*erg). | |
| everyone is terribly afraid of dogs | but | I | am | it | the most | much | ||
| 'Everyone is terribly afraid of dogs, but Iʼm the most so.' | ||||||||
| b. | Niemand | is erg bang voor honden, | maar | ik | ben | het | het minst | (??erg). | |
| no one | is very afraid of dogs | but | I | am | it | the least | much | ||
| 'No one is very afraid of dogs, but Iʼm the least so.' | |||||||||
The addition of erg is again impossible, although (176a) alternates with (177), in which the comparative form het ergst'the worst' is used. Note that, for some reason, (176b) yields a better result with erg than (174b).
| Iedereen | is vreselijk bang voor honden, | maar | ik | ben | het | het ergst. | ||
| everyone | is terribly afraid of dogs | but | I | am | it | the worst | ||
| 'Everyone is terribly afraid of dogs, but Iʼm the most so.' | ||||||||
The equative degree differs form the comparative and superlative degree in that even'as' must be followed by the element erg, just as in the case of the modifiers te'too', zo'so' and hoe'how'. The fact that erg does not occur in a non-pronominal AP modified by even (*even erg bang) shows that erg is not an intensifier in the construction in (178) but is needed to license pronominalization of the AP.
| Jan is ontzettend | bang voor honden | en | ik | ben | het | even | *(erg). | ||
| Jan is terribly | afraid of dogs | and | I | am | it | as | much | ||
| 'Jan is very afraid of dogs, and Iʼm as much so.' | |||||||||
