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- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Coordination and Ellipsis
- Nouns and noun phrases (JANUARI 2025)
- 15 Characterization and classification
- 16 Projection of noun phrases I: Complementation
- 16.0. Introduction
- 16.1. General observations
- 16.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 16.3. Clausal complements
- 16.4. Bibliographical notes
- 17 Projection of noun phrases II: Modification
- 17.0. Introduction
- 17.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 17.2. Premodification
- 17.3. Postmodification
- 17.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 17.3.2. Relative clauses
- 17.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 17.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 17.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 17.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 17.4. Bibliographical notes
- 18 Projection of noun phrases III: Binominal constructions
- 18.0. Introduction
- 18.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 18.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 18.3. Bibliographical notes
- 19 Determiners: Articles and pronouns
- 19.0. Introduction
- 19.1. Articles
- 19.2. Pronouns
- 19.3. Bibliographical notes
- 20 Numerals and quantifiers
- 20.0. Introduction
- 20.1. Numerals
- 20.2. Quantifiers
- 20.2.1. Introduction
- 20.2.2. Universal quantifiers: ieder/elk ‘every’ and alle ‘all’
- 20.2.3. Existential quantifiers: sommige ‘some’ and enkele ‘some’
- 20.2.4. Degree quantifiers: veel ‘many/much’ and weinig ‘few/little’
- 20.2.5. Modification of quantifiers
- 20.2.6. A note on the adverbial use of degree quantifiers
- 20.3. Quantitative er constructions
- 20.4. Partitive and pseudo-partitive constructions
- 20.5. Bibliographical notes
- 21 Predeterminers
- 21.0. Introduction
- 21.1. The universal quantifier al ‘all’ and its alternants
- 21.2. The predeterminer heel ‘all/whole’
- 21.3. A note on focus particles
- 21.4. Bibliographical notes
- 22 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- 23 Referential dependencies (binding)
- Syntax
-
- General
This section discusses the syntactic distribution of inflectible heel; again, we distinguish between its purely adjectival and quantificational use. Subsection I first shows that postdeterminer adjectival heel behaves like an ordinary attributive adjective in its syntactic distribution; it also differs from predeterminer bare heel in that it can be used in plural noun phrases. Subsection II focuses exclusively on postdeterminer quantificational heel. While Section 21.2.2.1 has shown that bare heel corresponds closely to bare al, this section will show that schwa-inflected hele differs from schwa-inflected alle in that it is not in complementary distribution with the determiners.
Section 21.2.1.2, sub I, has paraphrased the meaning of postdeterminer adjectival heelwhole by English adjectives like intact, complete, not broken, and full. It should not surprise us then that it often alternates with regular attributive adjectival phrases; some more examples are given in (286). The adjective geheel in de gehele taart/verzamelingthe complete cake/collection, derived from heel by means of the prefix ge-, will be discussed in Section 21.2.2.3.
a. | de hele/complete | taart | |
the whole/complete | cake |
b. | de | hele/volledige | verzameling | |
the | whole/complete | collection |
c. | de hele/(goed) werkende | computer | |
the whole/well-functioning | computer |
d. | het hele/ongeschonden | glas | |
the whole/ unblemished | glass |
e. | de hele/volle fles | |
the whole/full bottle |
Since adjectival heel is a regular adjective, its distribution in the noun phrase is identical to that of other adjectives of the same semantic type (i.e. non-gradable adjectives); cf. A28. Table 13 also shows that in this usage postdeterminer inflectible heel can occur in singular and plural [+count] noun phrases. A comparison with Table 10 in Section 21.2.2.1, sub I, shows that inflectible heel differs from predeterminer bare heel in this respect.
singular | plural | ||
[-neuter] | [+neuter] | ||
definite articles | de hele taart the whole cake | het hele glas the whole glass | de hele taarten/glazen the whole cakes/glasses |
demonstrative pronouns | die hele taart that whole cake | dat hele glas that whole glass | die hele taarten/glazen those whole cakes/glasses |
deze hele taart this whole cake | dit hele glas this whole glass | deze hele taarten/glazen these whole cakes/glasses | |
possessive pronouns | mijn hele taart my whole cake | mijn hele glas my whole glass | (?)mijn hele taarten/glazen my whole cakes/glasses |
Although adjectival heel can easily be combined with plural count nouns, it is difficult to find felicitous examples with pluralia tantum. Example (287a) may work reasonably well with an interpretation of heel as gaafunscathed; its status is more or less the same as that of its paraphrase with a relative clause in (287b), in which heel is used as a predicate.
a. | # | de | hele | hersenen |
the | whole | brains | ||
'the whole/intact brain' |
b. | # | de | herseneni | [diei | (nog) | heel | zijn] |
the | brains | that | still | whole | are | ||
'the brain that is (still) intact' |
For formal plurals denoting a conventionally fixed unit, no context can be found in which adjectival heel can plausibly be used as a modifier meaning “intact”, etc.; Subsection II will show that heel receives a quantificational reading in this context. The lexical semantics of adjectival heel also makes it impossible to combine it with non-count nouns; cf. $de hele/complete wijn (lit.: the whole/complete wine) and $het hele/complete vee (lit.: the whole/complete cattle). This concludes our discussion of the adjectival use of postdeterminer inflectible heel; the remainder of this section will focus on its quantificational uses.
This section presents an overview of the distribution of postdeterminer inflectible heel within the noun phrase. Subsection A first discusses the types of noun phrase that can contain this postdeterminer. This is followed in Subsection B by a discussion of the restrictions that heel that imposes on other elements in the noun phrase.
Table 14 shows that quantificational inflectible heel can be placed to the right of a determiner in neuter and non-neuter singular [+count] noun phrases. However, it is difficult to use quantificational heel in plural noun phrases.
singular | plural | ||
[-neuter] | [+neuter] | ||
definite articles | de hele stad the whole town | het hele huis the whole house | *de hele steden/huizen the whole towns/houses |
demonstrative pronouns | die hele stad that whole town | dat hele huis that whole house | ??die hele steden/huizen those whole towns/houses |
deze hele stad this whole town | dit hele huis this whole house | *?deze hele steden/huizen these whole towns/houses | |
possessive pronouns | mijn hele stad my whole town | mijn hele huis my whole house | *mijn hele steden/huizen my whole towns/houses |
The acceptability judgments on the plural noun phrases seem to be determined by the semantics of heel. Section 21.2.1.2, sub II, has shown that postdeterminer heel has a variety of quantificational interpretations; totality, degree and negative polarity are the three main instantiations. The core quantificational semantics of totality is the most salient component of the interpretation of singular examples. In definite plurals, on the other hand, the totality reading is unavailable, or at least very difficult to obtain, which accounts for the unacceptability of most of these cases. Some concrete examples in context are given in (288).
a. | De hele stad | werd | leeggeroofd. | |
the whole city | was | robbed.empty | ||
'The whole city was looted.' |
a'. | * | De hele steden | werden | leeggeroofd. |
the whole city | were | robbed.empty |
b. | Het hele huis | is schoongemaakt. | |
the whole house | is clean.made | ||
'The whole house has been cleaned.' |
b'. | * | De hele huizen | zijn schoongemaakt. |
the whole houses | are clean.made |
Plural examples with the distal demonstrative die (and perhaps also those with the proximate demonstrative deze) seem marginally possible on a negative polarity reading; cf. ??Die hele steden/huizen interesseren me nietThose cities/houses do not interest me at all. Totality and degree interpretations, on the other hand, are categorically excluded; they are reserved for bare (i.e. determinerless) plurals, as in (289).
∅ Hele steden/huizen | werden | verwoest. | ||
∅ entire towns/houses | were | destroyed | ||
'Entire cities/houses were destroyed.' |
Since pluralia tantum and group-denoting plurals preceded by the definite article refer to a unit, they are eligible for the totality interpretation of hele, unlike the regular plurals in Table 14.
a. | de | hele | hersenen | |
the | whole | brains |
c. | de | hele | Verenigde Staten | |
the | whole | United States |
b. | de | hele | tropen | |
the | whole | tropics |
d. | de | hele | Antillen | |
the | whole | Antilles |
Quantificational hele can also be construed with abstract non-count nouns, although adding hele to a substance noun is difficult, if at all possible: in Table 15 we show this only for [-neuter] nouns. Adding postdeterminer heel to noun phrases headed by a mass noun leads to a degraded result. Postdeterminer heel matches predeterminer bare heel perfectly in this respect; cf. Section 21.2.2.1, sub I. Note that the examples with the distal demonstratives die/dat are perfectly acceptable on a negative polarity reading.
substance nouns | abstract nouns | mass nouns | |
definite articles | *de hele wijn the whole wine | de hele ellende the whole misery | ??het hele vee the whole cattle |
demonstrative pronouns | *die hele wijn that whole wine | die hele ellende that whole misery | ??dat hele vee that whole cattle |
*deze hele wijn this whole wine | deze hele ellende this whole misery | ??dit hele vee this whole cattle | |
possessive pronouns | *mijn hele wijn my whole wine | zijn hele ellende his whole misery | ??mijn hele vee my whole cattle |
The parallel between inflectible and bare heel goes further. The examples in (291) show that, as in the case of bare predeterminer heel in (266), contexts in which wijn and water are conceived as units/bodies of liquid are at least marginally possible; cf. totalfishing.nl/laatste-nieuws/articles/fragment-uit-de-dunne-lijn-1# for (291b).
a. | ? | De hele rode wijn | is op. |
the whole red wine | is up | ||
'The red wine is completely finished.' |
b. | Verspreid | het voer | zoveel mogelijk | over het hele water. | |
scatter | the feed | as.much.as possible | over the whole water | ||
'Scatter the feed as much as possible across the whole of the water.' |
Furthermore, as in the case of predeterminer heel in (267), examples such as (292c) are well-formed. The totality semantics of postdeterminer heel is responsible for this contrast; the discussion in Section 21.2.2.1, sub I, therefore largely carries over to the present examples.
a. | ?? | Het hele vee van boer Harms | leed | aan BSE. |
the whole cattle of farmer Harms | suffered | from BSE |
b. | ?? | Het hele fruit in de krat | was beschimmeld. |
the whole fruit in the crate | was moldy |
c. | Het hele verkeer | stond | vast. | |
the whole traffic | stood | fast [≈ got snarled] |
Postdeterminer heel is also possible with deverbal bare stem nouns, just like predeterminer heel in Table 12. The examples with nominal infinitives and ge-nominalizations are perhaps slightly better than in the case of predeterminer heel, but still distinctly odd.
bare stem | nominal infinitive | ge-nominalization | |
definite articles | het hele werk the whole work | *?het hele werken the whole working | *?het hele gewerk the whole working |
demonstrative pronouns | dat hele werk that whole work | ?dat hele werken that whole working | ?dat hele gewerk that whole working |
dit hele werk this whole work | ?dit hele werken this whole working | ?dit hele gewerk this whole working | |
possessive pronouns | mijn hele werk this whole work | ?mijn hele werken this whole working | ?mijn hele gewerk this whole working |
Note, however, that in the idiomatic expression in (293a) hele is combined with a nominal infinitive. That this is a nominal infinitive is evident from the fact that eten takes an NP-complement to its left; cf. Section 16.2.3.2 for the structure of such nominal infinitives. As shown in (293b), the ge-nominalization gedoefuss is also special in that it can also be preceded by hele.
a. | Dat | is | het hele eieren | eten. | |
that | is | the whole eggs | eat | ||
'That is all there is to it.' |
b. | Ik | ben | het/dat | hele gedoe | zat. | |
I | am | the/that | whole fuss | fed.up | ||
'I am fed up with the/that whole fuss.' |
The extent to which deverbal nouns like [-neuter] aankomstarrival and aanvangbeginning or [+neuter] beginbeginning and vertrekdeparture are compatible with postdeterminer heel depends on the interpretation of the nominalization; the examples in (294) have more or less the same status as the examples with predeterminer bare heel in (269). The discussion of the latter examples in Section 21.2.2.1, sub I, carries over seamlessly to the present examples with postdeterminer inflectible heel; heel is only possible when the referent of the noun phrase has a temporal extension, as in the primed examples.
a. | # | de | hele | aankomst/aanvang |
the | whole | arrival/beginning |
a'. | de | hele | aankomst | van Sinterklaas | |
the | whole | arrival | of Saint.Nicholas |
b. | # | het hele | begin/vertrek |
the whole | beginning/departure |
b'. | het | hele begin | van de film | |
the | whole beginning | of the movie |
The primeless examples in (294) are marked with a number sign because, although they are unacceptable on the intended quantificational reading of totality, they are possible on a negative polarity reading. This reading is brought to the fore by the context given in (295).
Toen | ging | ineens | de hele aankomst/het hele vertrek | niet | door. | ||
then | went | suddenly | the whole arrival/the whole departure | not | through | ||
'Then all of a sudden the whole arrival/departure was cancelled.' |
This subsection examines the restrictions imposed by heel on the presence of determiners and quantificational elements. The internal syntax of noun phrases is not affected by the presence of postdeterminer inflectible heel: whereas Section 21.2.2.1, sub II, found that the extent to which noun phrases are quantifiable by predeterminer bare heel is partly determined by the presence or absence of attributive modifiers of the head noun, there are no such interrelations between inflectible heel and attributive adjectives. Postdeterminer heel easily combines with noun phrases containing attributively used adjectives.
a. | die | <hele> | boze/vijandige <*hele> | wereld | |
that | whole | angry/hostile | world |
b. | de | <hele> | lekkere <hele> | taart | |
the | whole | nice | cake |
Example (296a) illustrates that heel appears to the left of the attributive adjective in its quantificational interpretations (totality, degree, or negative polarity). On its purely adjectival reading in (296b), on the other hand, heel can be placed on either side of attributive adjectives, the choice depending on contextualization; cf. Section A28.5.3 for the relative ordering of stacked adjectives. Note in passing that in (296b) hele can also be interpreted as a degree modifier of the adjective lekkere if it precedes it.
Table 14 has shown that the distribution of postdeterminer heel in its quantificational reading is tightly connected to the nature of the definite determiner that heads the noun phrase in which heel occurs. The main results are as follows. First, the determiners of the singular noun phrases in Table 14 trigger a totality reading of heel. Second, the determiners of the plural noun phrases prevent a totality reading of heel, and as a result plural examples such as de hele steden are not well-formed. Finally, the distal demonstrative diethat/those can lead to a negative polarity interpretation of postdeterminer heel, which explains why the plural noun phrase die hele steden is more or less well-formed.
The distal and proximate demonstratives can receive contrastive accent in the presence of postdeterminer heel, as shown in (297). Backward conjunction reduction and NP-ellipsis are possible in these examples, but only if hele is omitted along with the rest of the noun phrase; the overt realization of hele in these examples produces a very marginal result in the case of backward conjunction reduction and is quite impossible in the case of NP-ellipsis. In this respect postdeterminer hele behaves like beide, as discussed in Section 21.1.2.2, sub IB. -
a. | Ik | ken | wel | deze hele stad, | maar | niet | die hele stad. |
a'. | Ik | ken | wel | deze (??hele) ∅, | maar | niet | die hele stad. | BCR |
a''. | Ik | ken | wel | deze hele stad, | maar | niet | die (*hele) ∅. | NP-ellipsis | |
I | know | aff | this whole town | but | not | that whole town |
b. | Ik | ken | wel | dit hele huis, | maar | niet | dat hele huis. |
b'. | Ik | ken | wel | dit (??hele) ∅, | maar | niet | dat hele huis. | BCR |
b''. | Ik | ken | wel | dit hele huis, | maar | niet | dat (*hele) ∅. | NP-ellipsis | |
I | know | aff | this whole house | but | not | that whole house |
In singular noun phrases, postdeterminer inflectible heel easily follows possessives of all kinds, pronominal, genitive, and semi-genitival possessives alike. Heel has the quantificational semantics of totality in all examples in (298); the degree or negative polarity readings are not available in possessed noun phrases.
a. | mijn | hele | vermogen/bezit | |
my | whole | fortune/estate |
b. | mijn vaders | hele | vermogen/bezit | |
my father’s | whole | fortune/estate |
c. | mijn vader | z’n | hele | vermogen/bezit | |
my father | his | whole | fortune/estate |
Table 17 shows that postdeterminer heel can also occur in indefinite singular noun phrases, provided that a determiner is present: the unacceptability of the determinerless examples indicates that, unlike quantifiers like elkevery or iedereach (cf. Section 20.2), heel cannot play the role of determiner or determiner-substitute in singular noun phrases. Table 17 also shows that heel inflects with schwa depending on the gender of the head noun, just like attributive adjectives in noun phrases with the singular indefinite article een (cf. Section 17.2, sub I); heel is used with neuter head nouns, hele with non-neuter ones.
count nouns | non-count nouns | |||
[-neuter] | [+neuter] | [-neuter] | [+neuter] | |
indefinite article een | een hele stad a whole town | een heel huis a whole house | een hele ellende a whole misery | een heel verdriet a whole sorrow |
indefinite article ∅ | *∅ hele stad ∅ whole town | *∅ heel huis ∅ whole house | *∅ hele ellende ∅ whole misery | *∅ heel verdriet ∅ whole sorrow |
Although the examples with non-count and count nouns are syntactically similar, they are semantically distinct. With count nouns, postdeterminer heel contributes a totality interpretation, whereas with non-count nouns heel receives a degree reading; an example such as een hele ellende is best rendered as quite a misery.
Example (289), repeated here as (299), finally shows that inflectible heel can occur in bare plurals. Note, however, that it is excluded in plural noun phrases in exclamative constructions of the type een \`1*hele\`1 boeken dat hij heeft!
∅ Hele steden/huizen | werden | verwoest. | ||
∅ entire towns/houses | were | destroyed | ||
'Entire cities/houses were destroyed.' |
Postdeterminer heel can follow not only the indefinite article een, but also indefinite determiners like zo’nsuch a in (300a&b), in which heel receives a totality interpretation. Note that (300c) is unacceptable; inflectible heel apparently cannot express a “quite” degree when preceded by zo’n.
a. | zo’n | hele | stad | |
such a | whole | town |
b. | zo’n | heel | dorp | |
such a | whole | village |
c. | * | zo’n | hele | ellende |
such a | whole | misery |
It is impossible to combine postdeterminer heel with een dergelijk(e)such a with heel to the left of dergelijk(e). With heel to the right of dergelijk(e) the result is acceptable, but only on the adjectival reading “whole, intact”. Since this reading is incompatible with the nouns stad and ellende, the examples in (301c&d) are degraded in all readings.
a. | een | <*hele> | dergelijke <#hele> | taart | |
a | whole | such | cake |
b. | een | <*hele> | dergelijke <#hele> | appel | |
a | whole | such | apple |
c. | * | een | <hele> | dergelijke <hele> | stad |
a | whole | such | town |
d. | * | een | <hele> | dergelijke <hele> | ellende |
a | whole | such | misery |
The examples in (302) also show that inflectible heel cannot precede the indefinite determiner-like elements dat/dit/zulk soort and zulke/dergelijke/van diesuch either. The unacceptability of the examples in (302a&b) on the intended reading is not surprising, because quantificational heel cannot normally be used in plural noun phrases; these examples allow only adjectival heel. The unacceptability of (302c&d) with heel, however, shows that the indefinite determiner-like elements under discussion are not compatible with quantificational heel; the adjectival interpretation of the postdeterminer is also ruled out because of the aforementioned incompatibility of the meaning of adjectival heel and the noun ellende.
a. | <*hele> | dat/dit/zulk soort <#hele> | taarten | |
whole | that/this/such sort | cakes |
b. | <*hele> | zulke/dergelijke/van die <#hele> | taarten | |
whole | such | cakes |
c. | <*hele> | dat/dit/zulk soort <*hele> | ellende | |
whole | that/this/such sort whole | misery |
d. | <*hele> | zulke/dergelijke/van die | <*hele> | ellende | |
whole | such | whole | misery |
It seems that postdeterminer inflectible heel cannot be combined with other quantifiers in its quantificational reading. It is possible for heel to follow the quantifiers enige and sommige, but then it will be interpreted as purely adjectival, meaning “whole, intact”. The same is true if heel follows the quantifiers veel and weinig.
a. | enige/sommige | (#hele) | appels | |
some | whole | apples |
a'. | veel/weinig | (#hele) | appels | |
many/few | whole | apples |
b. | * | enige/sommige | (hele) | ellende |
some | whole | misery |
b'. | veel/weinig | (*hele) | ellende | |
much/little | whole | misery |
Three of the four examples in (303) are excluded for independent reasons: the (a)-examples are excluded because quantificational heel cannot normally be used in plural noun phrases; (303b) is excluded because enige and sommige must be followed by a count noun. This leaves (303b') as the only evidence for the claim that quantificational heel cannot be combined with other quantifiers. However, this claim is also supported by the fact that the syntactically singular noun phrases in (304) are questionable in the intended reading: they are only acceptable with a purely adjectival interpretation of heel.
a. | elke/iedere | (#hele) | appel | |
every | whole | apple |
b. | elk/ieder | (#heel) | huis | |
every | whole | house |
c. | elke/iedere | (#hele) | stad | |
every | whole | town |
Quantificational readings are not available for postdeterminer heel in the presence of attributively used quantifiers; example (305a), in which heel occurs to the right of the quantifiers in question, is only acceptable on the adjectival reading of heel; because the noun lijden in (305b) does not easily allow the adjectival reading of heel, its unacceptability therefore shows that a totality reading is impossible in such cases. The examples in (306) show that a negative polarity reading of heel is also impossible in this context.
a. | die | <*hele> | vele/weinige/twee <hele> | appels | |
those | whole | many/few/two | apples |
b. | * | het | <hele> | vele/weinige <hele> | lijden | dat zij gedragen heeft |
the | whole | much/little | suffering | that she borne has |
a. | * | Ik | ken | die | <hele> | vele/weinige/twee <hele> | mensen | niet. |
I | know | those | whole | many/few/two | people | not |
b. | * | Ik | ken | die | <hele> | ene <hele> | vent | niet. |
I | know | that | whole | one | guy | not |
Note that the sequence hele vele in (305b)(306a) can be interpreted as “very much/many”, but this is not relevant here.
Like bare heel, inflectible heel cannot be combined with pronouns, whether to the left or to the right of them. Table (307) illustrates this only for the first case. Obvious exceptions are cases such as mijn hele ikmy whole self, where the proper noun ikI is used as a common noun.
singular | plural | ||
1st person | *hele ik/me/mij | *hele wij/ons | |
2nd person | regular | *hele jij/je/jou | *hele jullie |
polite | *hele u | ||
3rd person | masculine | *hele hij/’m/hem | *hele zij/hen/hun |
feminine | *hele zij/’r/haar | ||
neuter | *hele het/’t |
In general, inflectible heel cannot be combined with proper nouns either. However, when the proper noun is modified, as in (308b), and can thus be preceded by a determiner, inflectible heel becomes possible with a totality reading. When the distal demonstrative die is present, as in (308b'), inflectible heel can also be used as a negative polarity item, expressing condescension on the part of the speaker.
a. | * | hele | Europa/Jan |
whole | Europe/Jan |
b. | het (hele) Europa | *(van voor de Tweede Wereldoorlog) | |
the whole Europe | from before the Second World War |
b'. | Ik | ken | die hele Jan | niet. | |
I | know | that whole Jan | not |
Another exception are proper nouns preceded by a definite determiner. Some examples are given in (309).
a. | Ik | ben | de hele Antillen | doorgereisd. | |
I | am | the whole Antilles | traveled.through | ||
'I have traveled through all the Antilles.' |
b. | Ze | hebben | de hele Westertoren | gerestaureerd. | |
they | have | the complete Westertoren | restored | ||
'They have restored the complete Westertoren.' |
