- Dutch
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
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- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Coordination and Ellipsis
- Nouns and noun phrases (JANUARI 2025)
- 15 Characterization and classification
- 16 Projection of noun phrases I: Complementation
- 16.0. Introduction
- 16.1. General observations
- 16.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 16.3. Clausal complements
- 16.4. Bibliographical notes
- 17 Projection of noun phrases II: Modification
- 17.0. Introduction
- 17.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 17.2. Premodification
- 17.3. Postmodification
- 17.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 17.3.2. Relative clauses
- 17.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 17.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 17.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 17.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 17.4. Bibliographical notes
- 18 Projection of noun phrases III: Binominal constructions
- 18.0. Introduction
- 18.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 18.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 18.3. Bibliographical notes
- 19 Determiners: Articles and pronouns
- 19.0. Introduction
- 19.1. Articles
- 19.2. Pronouns
- 19.3. Bibliographical notes
- 20 Numerals and quantifiers
- 20.0. Introduction
- 20.1. Numerals
- 20.2. Quantifiers
- 20.2.1. Introduction
- 20.2.2. Universal quantifiers: ieder/elk ‘every’ and alle ‘all’
- 20.2.3. Existential quantifiers: sommige ‘some’ and enkele ‘some’
- 20.2.4. Degree quantifiers: veel ‘many/much’ and weinig ‘few/little’
- 20.2.5. Modification of quantifiers
- 20.2.6. A note on the adverbial use of degree quantifiers
- 20.3. Quantitative er constructions
- 20.4. Partitive and pseudo-partitive constructions
- 20.5. Bibliographical notes
- 21 Predeterminers
- 21.0. Introduction
- 21.1. The universal quantifier al ‘all’ and its alternants
- 21.2. The predeterminer heel ‘all/whole’
- 21.3. A note on focus particles
- 21.4. Bibliographical notes
- 22 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- 23 Referential dependencies (binding)
- Syntax
-
- General
Table 10 shows that predeterminer bare heel occurs in singular neuter and non-neuter noun phrases, but not in their plural counterparts. In this respect, the distribution of bare heel is complementary to that of bare al; cf. Table 1 in Section 21.1.2.1.
singular [±neuter] | plural [±neuter] | |
definite articles | heel de stad/het huis all the town/the house | *heel de steden/huizen all the towns/houses |
demonstrative pronouns | (?)heel die stad/dat huis all that town/that house | *heel die steden/huizen all those towns/houses |
?heel deze stad/dit huis all this town/this house | *heel deze steden/huizen all these towns/houses | |
possessive pronouns | heel mijn stad/huis all my town/house | *heel mijn steden/huizen all my towns/houses |
The examples in (265) show that the prohibition against construing predeterminer heel with plural noun phrases does not hold for pluralia tantum and formal plurals denoting a conventionally fixed unit; cf. also example (175) in Section 21.2.1.1. Although such noun phrases behave syntactically like regular plurals (as evidenced by the plural subject-verb agreement in (265a)), they are compatible with predeterminer bare heel because they denote single structured units that are exhaustively partitionable; cf. the discussion of the core meaning of bare heel in Section 21.2.1.1, sub I.
a. | Heel | de hersenen | zijn | aangetast | door de tumor. | |
all | the brains | are | affected | by the tumor |
b. | El Niño heeft | het klimaat | in heel de tropen | aangetast. | |
El Niño has | the climate | in all the tropics | affected |
c. | Ik | heb | heel | de Verenigde Staten | doorgereisd. | |
I | have | all | the United States | traveled.through |
d. | Hij | is | de bekendste politicus | van | heel | de Antillen. | |
he | is | the best-known politician | of | all | the Antilles |
To a certain extent, the complementary distribution of bare heel and al also holds for their distribution in noun phrases headed by a non-count noun, as can be seen by comparing Table 11 with Table 2 in Section 21.1.2.1; unlike predeterminer al, heel cannot normally occur in noun phrases headed by substance nouns.
substance nouns [±neuter] | mass nouns | |
definite articles | *heel de wijn/het water all the wine/the water | *?heel het vee all the cattle |
demonstrative pronouns | *heel die wijn/dat water all that wine/that water | *?heel dat vee all that cattle |
*heel deze wijn/dit water all this wine/this water | *?heel dit vee all this cattle | |
possessive pronouns | *heel mijn wijn/water all my wine/water | *?heel mijn vee all my cattle |
However, examples such as heel de wijn become marginally acceptable in contexts where wijn and water are conceived as countable units of liquid. An example such as (266a) is marginally acceptable with an interpretation of rode wijn as a fixed quantity of red wine, e.g. a collection of bottles in the cellar. Similarly, the internet example in (266b) refers to a body of water divided into a number of fishing plots; cf. carpboard.karperwereld.nl/viewtopic.php?t=29147. The fact that the examples in (266) trigger an interpretation involving structured units follows naturally from the semantic characterization of the quantificational semantics of predeterminer bare heel given in 21.2.1.1, sub I.
a. | ?? | Heel | de rode wijn | is | op. |
all | the red wine | is | up | ||
'All the red wine is finished.' |
b. | [We | voeren | de vissen] | verspreid | over | heel | het water. | |
we | feed | the fish | scattered | over | all | the water | ||
'We are feeding the fish scattered over all the water.' |
The complementarity in distribution between bare heel and al also seems to hold for noun phrases headed by a mass noun; the examples in (267a&b) are quite bad with heel. In (267c), on the other hand, al and heel seem to be equally acceptable, although a Google search (August 3, 2022) found that the string [al het verkeer] occurs much more frequently than the string [heel het verkeer]; these strings returned 192 and 22 hits, respectively.
a. | Al/*?Heel het vee van boer Harms | leed | aan BSE. | |
all the cattle of farmer Harms | suffered | from BSE |
b. | Al/*?Heel het fruit in de krat | was beschimmeld. | |
all the fruit in the crate | was moldy |
c. | Al/Heel het verkeer | stond | vast. | |
all the traffic | stood | fast | ||
'All the traffic was jammed.' |
The complementary distribution between bare heel and al also seems to break down in noun phrases headed by abstract non-count nouns; both al and heel seem to be possible in this case, with heel preceding noun phrases headed by a neuter noun being somewhat marked. As in the case of al, the constructions in (268) seem to favor the presence of a postnominal modifier or relative clause. There is essentially no difference in meaning between the constructions with heel and al; for example, (268a) is semantically near-equivalent to al de ellende van de wereld.
a. | heel de ellende | ?(van de wereld) | |
all the misery | of the world | ||
'all the misery | |||
in the world' |
b. | ? | heel het verdriet | dat | ik | heb | meegemaakt |
all the sorrow | that | I | have | prt.-made | ||
'all the sorrow that I have been through' |
Note, however, that the constructions with al are again much more frequent than those with heel, as can be seen from a Google search (August 3, 2022): the string [al de ellende] resulted in 139 hits, while [heel de ellende] resulted in no more than 26 cases. The contrast was even greater for [al het verdriet] and [heel het verdriet], which yielded 203 and 12 hits, respectively.
The complementary distribution of bare heel and al seems to break down again in the case of deverbal nouns. Table 12 shows that bare heel yields a poor result in noun phrases headed by a nominal infinitive or ge-nominalization, as expected, but can easily be combined with noun phrases headed by a bare verbal stem; cf. Table 3 in Section 21.1.2.1 for the corresponding examples with al.
bare stem | nominal infinitive | ge-nominalization | |
definite articles | heel het werk all the work | *?heel het werken all the working | *heel het gewerk all the working |
demonstrative pronouns | heel dat werk all that work | *?heel dat werken all that working | *heel dat gewerk all that working |
heel dit werk all this work | *heel dit werken all this working | *heel dit gewerk all this working | |
possessive pronouns | heel mijn werk all this work | *heel mijn werken all this working | *heel mijn gewerk all this working |
As in the cases with al, bare stems with heel produce acceptable results only if they receive an eventive interpretation (not if they have a result reading). Consider the contrast between the primeless and primed examples in (269).
a. | * | heel | de aankomst/aanvang | cf. *al de aankomst/aanvang |
all | the arrival/beginning |
a'. | heel | de aankomst van Sinterklaas | |
all | the arrival of Saint.Nicholas |
b. | * | heel | het begin/vertrek | cf. *al het begin/vertrek |
all | the beginning/departure |
b'. | heel | het begin van de film | |
all | the beginning of the movie |
This contrast is one of result versus state-of-affairs nouns, i.e. the absence or presence of temporal extension. While an arrival is usually thought of as a momentary or punctual event, in (269a') it is not: the arrival of Saint Nicholas (who, according to Dutch tradition, comes from Spain to bring presents to all good children about two weeks before his memorial day on December 6) is an event with significant temporal extension. Similarly, while the beginning of something is usually a momentary, point-like event on a temporal scale, the beginning of a movie (the set of scenes that together make up the opening of the movie) has a temporal extension. This temporal extension is responsible for the acceptability of heel in the primed examples. The role of temporal extension in deverbal noun phrases headed by nouns like aankomstarrival or beginbeginning clearly confirms the characterization of the semantics of predeterminer bare heel as an exhaustive partitioner. While punctual events are not partitionable on a temporal scale, events with temporal extension are; hence the latter are compatible with bare heel while the former are not.
This subsection examines the restrictions that predeterminer bare heel imposes on the presence of determiners and other quantificational elements. A preliminary observation should be that the noun phrases following bare heel are syntactically more limited than the corresponding constructions without heel: with the former, attributive modifiers seem to be restricted to cases in which the adjective and the noun form more or less fixed collocations. The examples in (270) present two minimal pairs; the acceptability contrasts in (270a&b) are supported by the results of a Google search (August 3, 2022), given between square brackets.
a. | heel | de/die | wijde/??vijandige | wereld | wijd 90; vijandig 0 | |
all | the/that | angry/hostile | world |
b. | heel | de/die | grote/*?drukke | stad | groot 12; druk 0 | |
all | the/that | big/busy | town |
The fully acceptable examples all seem to involve a close semantic coherence between the adjective and the noun: the noun wereld is typically combined with a restricted set of epithets, i.e. non-restrictive adjectives like wijdwide, boosevil and mooibeautiful and these are the ones we typically find in the context in (270a). Something similar may hold for groot in de grote stadthe big city, which functions almost like a compound (cf. German Großstadtbig-city). The markedness of non-collocational attributive adjectives in bare heel constructions may be related to the “exhaustive partitioning” semantics of bare heel; the presence of a regular (i.e. restrictive) attributive adjective may prevent the partitioning necessary for the interpretation of predeterminer bare heel.
Table 10 has shown that predeterminer bare heel can be used with all types of determiners, although it is not fully compatible with the distal and especially the proximate demonstrative pronouns. The relevant examples are repeated here as (271).
a. | heel | de/(?)die/?deze/mijn | stad | |
all | the/that/this/my | town |
b. | heel | het/(?)dat/?dit/mijn | huis | |
all | the/that/this/my | house |
However, the proximate demonstrative examples improve to the point of full acceptability in contrastive contexts of the type in (272). Constructions of the type in (272a) can normally be phonetically reduced by backward conjunction reduction and NP-ellipsis, but they yield robustly different results in the context of predeterminer heel; while backward conjunction reduction leads to perfectly acceptable results, the NP-ellipsis cases are unacceptable (and certainly considerably worse than the corresponding examples with predeterminer bare al; cf. example (24) in Section 21.1.2.1, sub II). -
a. | Ik | ken | wel | heel | deze stad, | maar | niet | heel | die stad. |
a'. | Ik | ken | wel | heel | deze ∅, | maar | niet | heel | die stad. | BCR |
a''. | * | Ik | ken | wel | heel | deze stad, | maar | niet | heel | die ∅. | NP-ellipsis |
I | know | aff | all | this town | but | not | all | that town |
b. | Ik | ken | wel | heel | dit huis, | maar | niet | heel | dat huis. |
b'. | Ik | ken | wel | heel | dit ∅, | maar | niet | heel | dat huis. | BCR |
b''. | * | Ik | ken | wel | heel | dit huis, | maar | niet | heel | dat ∅. | NP-ellipsis |
I | know | aff | all | this house | but | not | all | that house |
The examples in (273a-c) show that bare heel can precede not only possessive pronouns but also (semi-)genitival possessive phrases. The somewhat marked status of (273c) is probably due to the heaviness of the overall construction.
a. | heel | mijn wereld | |
all | my world |
b. | heel | mijn vaders | wereld | |
all | my father’s | world |
c. | ? | heel | mijn vader | z’n wereld |
all | my father | his world |
Example (274b) shows that bare heel can also precede nominalized possessive pronouns. This supports the suggestion made in Section 19.2.2.4, sub II, that noun phrases like de jouwe do not involve ellipsis, since otherwise we would expect examples with strings heel de jouwe to be as bad as the doubly-primed examples in (272).
a. | Heel mijn fiets | glimt, | maar | heel | jouw fiets | is roestig. | |
all my bike | shines | but | all | your bike | is rusty |
b. | Heel mijn fiets | glimt, | maar | heel de jouwe | is roestig. | |
all my bike | shines | but | all yours | is rusty |
Predeterminer bare heel cannot be combined with noun phrases containing the indefinite article een: this is shown in (275a&b) for [+count] and [-count] nouns, respectively. Predeterminer bare heel cannot be combined with bare noun phrases either: the examples in (275b&c) illustrate this for bare singulars and bare pluralia tantum, respectively. Note that we deviate here from Zwarts (1992:156), who assigns a mere question mark to *heel een ijsjeall an ice cream; our informants generally agree that examples of this type are unacceptable.
a. | * | heel | een stad/huis |
all | a town/house |
b. | * | heel | een/∅ | ellende |
all | a/∅ | misery |
c. | Die jongen | heeft | (*heel) ∅ | hersens! | |
that boy | has | all | brains |
An exception to the prohibition of heel before indefinite determiners is when een combines with zo to form the indefinite demonstrative zo’nsuch a; cf. Section 19.2.3.1, sub I. For heel to be acceptable, however, the head noun must be a count noun. Recall that the count/non-count distinction does not have the same influence on the distribution of predeterminer heel in the case of a definite demonstrative; both heel die stad and heel die ellende are acceptable.
a. | heel | zo’n | stad/huis | |
all | such a | town/house |
b. | * | heel | zo’n ellende |
all | such sorrow |
Although predeterminer bare heel can precede the indefinite demonstrative zo’nsuch a in (276a), it cannot precede the indefinite determiner-like elements zulk/dergelijk/van diesuch. No doubt this is related to the fact that these determiners are usually followed by plural count nouns, which are excluded from this construction anyway. The fact that the constructions with non-count nouns in (277) are also unacceptable fits nicely with the fact that such examples are also impossible with zo’n.
a. | * | heel | zulke/dergelijke/van die | ellende |
all | such | misery |
b. | * | heel | zulke/dergelijke/van die | wijn |
all | such | wine |
This suggests that heel must be followed linearly by a definite determiner or by zo’n. We phrase this statement in linear terms to capture the difference in acceptability between zulk soort/dergelijk soort and their semantic equivalents dit soort/dat soort; (278a) shows that the latter are acceptable, which may be due to the fact that they themselves are introduced by a demonstrative that linearly follows heel in the output string. Example (278b) shows that the contrast in (278a) is not found with predeterminer bare al.
a. | heel | dat/dit/*zulk soort | gedoe | |
all | that/this/such sort | fuss |
b. | al | dat/dit/zulk soort | gedoe | |
all | that/this/such sort | fuss |
Section 21.1.2.1, sub IIB, concluded that al in (278b) forms a constituent with dat/dit/zulk soort, on the basis of the fact that al dat/dit/zulk soort N can appear as a subject in existential er constructions. Such a case cannot be made for heel, since it is impossible to determine on independent grounds whether heel is a strong or weak quantifier: the addition of heel to a noun phrase does not affect the weak/strong status of that noun phrase. Nevertheless, one possible way to eliminate the reference to linearity in the characterization of the relationship between heel and the following determiner is to analyze heel dat/dit soort in (278a) as a constituent as well. Although this analysis seems structurally plausible, a potential semantic problem for it is that heel seems to be construed with gedoe rather than with soort.
Predeterminer bare heel cannot precede quantifiers like enige/sommigesome and elk/iederevery.
a. | * | heel | enige | ellende/verdriet |
all | some | misery/sorrow |
b. | * | heel | elke/iedere | stad |
all | every | town |
b'. | * | heel | elk/ieder | huis |
all | every | house |
Since Table 10 has shown that bare heel does not combine with plural noun phrases, it is not surprising that adding a cardinal numeral to the noun phrase to the right of heel is usually impossible. The number sign in example (280a) indicates that it may be marginally acceptable on the negative polarity reading of heel described in Section 21.2.1.1, sub II.
# | heel | die | twee steden | |
all | those | two towns |
In the discussion of bare al in Section 21.1.2.1, sub IIC, it was pointed out that the addition of an inflected quantifier like velemuch/many or weinigelittle/few to the noun phrase following al is possible for some speakers, though always rather marginal. The relevant examples are reproduced here in (281a&a'); the (b)-examples show that adding predeterminer heel to such constructions leads to degraded results.
a. | de | (vele/weinige) | mensen | in de zaal | |
the | many/few | people | in the room |
a'. | al | de | (?vele/??weinige) | mensen | in de zaal | |
all | the | many/few | people | in the room |
b. | het | (vele/weinige) | lijden | in de wereld | |
the | much/little | suffering | in the world |
b'. | heel | het | (??vele/*weinige) | lijden | in de wereld | |
all | the | much/little | suffering | in the world |
For completeness, note that heel can precede the quantifiers veel and weinig when it acts as a modifier of the quantifiers; cf. Section 20.2.5. That heel in (282) is a premodifier of the quantifier, and not of the noun phrase as a whole (i.e. as a predeterminer of the indefinite null article), is evident from the fact that the plural count nouns and the substance noun wijn cannot normally co-occur with predeterminer bare heel; cf. Table 10 and Table 11.
a. | [(heel) | veel] | boeken | |
very | many | books |
b. | [(heel) | weinig] | wijn | |
very | little | wine |
We can be brief about the combination of predeterminer bare heel and personal pronouns; heel cannot be combined with pronouns, regardless of whether it is placed to the left or to the right of the pronoun. Example (283) shows this only for heel preceding the pronoun.
singular | plural | ||
1st person | *heel ik/me/mij | *heel wij/ons *heel | |
2nd person | regular | *heel jij/je/jou | *heel jullie |
polite | *heel u | ||
3rd person | masculine | *heel hij/’m/hem | *heel zij/hen/hun |
feminine | *heel zij/’r/haar | ||
neuter | *heel het/’t |
We have already seen that bare heel can be combined with proper nouns that satisfy the semantic constraint imposed by heel that the noun phrase with which it is construed denotes a structured unit; cf. Section 21.2.1.1, sub I, for further discussion, and Section 21.1.2.1, sub IID, for a comparison with similar examples with al.
a. | heel | Europa/Duitsland/Hongarije/Italië/Amsterdam | |
all | Europe/Germany/Hungary/Italy/Amsterdam |
b. | * | heel Jan |
all Jan |
The examples in (285) show that bare heel differs from bare al in that it cannot precede the wh-word wat in free relatives (cf. Section 21.1.2.1, sub IID), but can form a constituent with wat in the guise of a quantified pronoun. Note that while indefinite wat normally alternates with ietssomething, this is impossible in (285b).
a. | al/*heel | wat | ik | hoor | |
all | what | I | hear |
b. | Ik | heb | heel/*al | wat | gehoord. | |
I | have | all | what | heard | ||
'I have heard quite a lot.' |
