- Dutch
- Frisian
- Saterfrisian
- Afrikaans
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- Syntax
- Preface and acknowledgements
- Verbs and Verb Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of verb phrases I:Argument structure
- 3 Projection of verb phrases II:Verb frame alternations
- Introduction
- 3.1. Main types
- 3.2. Alternations involving the external argument
- 3.3. Alternations of noun phrases and PPs
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.3.1.1. Dative alternation with aan-phrases (recipients)
- 3.3.1.2. Dative alternation with naar-phrases (goals)
- 3.3.1.3. Dative alternation with van-phrases (sources)
- 3.3.1.4. Dative alternation with bij-phrases (possessors)
- 3.3.1.5. Dative alternation with voor-phrases (benefactives)
- 3.3.1.6. Conclusion
- 3.3.1.7. Bibliographical notes
- 3.3.2. Accusative/PP alternations
- 3.3.3. Nominative/PP alternations
- 3.3.1. Dative/PP alternations (dative shift)
- 3.4. Some apparent cases of verb frame alternation
- 3.5. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of verb phrases IIIa:Selection of clauses/verb phrases
- 5 Projection of verb phrases IIIb:Argument and complementive clauses
- Introduction
- 5.1. Finite argument clauses
- 5.2. Infinitival argument clauses
- 5.3. Complementive clauses
- 6 Projection of verb phrases IIIc:Complements of non-main verbs
- 7 Projection of verb phrases IIId:Verb clusters
- 8 Projection of verb phrases IV: Adverbial modification
- 9 Word order in the clause I:General introduction
- 10 Word order in the clause II:Position of the finite verb (verb-first/second)
- 11 Word order in the clause III:Clause-initial position (wh-movement)
- Introduction
- 11.1. The formation of V1- and V2-clauses
- 11.2. Clause-initial position remains (phonetically) empty
- 11.3. Clause-initial position is filled
- 12 Word order in the clause IV:Postverbal field (extraposition)
- 13 Word order in the clause V: Middle field (scrambling)
- 14 Main-clause external elements
- Nouns and Noun Phrases
- 1 Characterization and classification
- 2 Projection of noun phrases I: complementation
- Introduction
- 2.1. General observations
- 2.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 2.3. Clausal complements
- 2.4. Bibliographical notes
- 3 Projection of noun phrases II: modification
- Introduction
- 3.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 3.2. Premodification
- 3.3. Postmodification
- 3.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 3.3.2. Relative clauses
- 3.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 3.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 3.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 3.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 3.4. Bibliographical notes
- 4 Projection of noun phrases III: binominal constructions
- Introduction
- 4.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 4.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 4.3. Bibliographical notes
- 5 Determiners: articles and pronouns
- Introduction
- 5.1. Articles
- 5.2. Pronouns
- 5.3. Bibliographical notes
- 6 Numerals and quantifiers
- 7 Pre-determiners
- Introduction
- 7.1. The universal quantifier al 'all' and its alternants
- 7.2. The pre-determiner heel 'all/whole'
- 7.3. A note on focus particles
- 7.4. Bibliographical notes
- 8 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- 2 Projection of adjective phrases I: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adjective phrases II: Modification
- 4 Projection of adjective phrases III: Comparison
- 5 Attributive use of the adjective phrase
- 6 Predicative use of the adjective phrase
- 7 The partitive genitive construction
- 8 Adverbial use of the adjective phrase
- 9 Participles and infinitives: their adjectival use
- 10 Special constructions
- Adpositions and adpositional phrases
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Introduction
- 1.1. Characterization of the category adposition
- 1.2. A formal classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3. A semantic classification of adpositional phrases
- 1.3.1. Spatial adpositions
- 1.3.2. Temporal adpositions
- 1.3.3. Non-spatial/temporal prepositions
- 1.4. Borderline cases
- 1.5. Bibliographical notes
- 2 Projection of adpositional phrases: Complementation
- 3 Projection of adpositional phrases: Modification
- 4 Syntactic uses of the adpositional phrase
- 5 R-pronominalization and R-words
- 1 Characteristics and classification
- Coordination and Ellipsis
- Nouns and noun phrases (JANUARI 2025)
- 15 Characterization and classification
- 16 Projection of noun phrases I: Complementation
- 16.0. Introduction
- 16.1. General observations
- 16.2. Prepositional and nominal complements
- 16.3. Clausal complements
- 16.4. Bibliographical notes
- 17 Projection of noun phrases II: Modification
- 17.0. Introduction
- 17.1. Restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers
- 17.2. Premodification
- 17.3. Postmodification
- 17.3.1. Adpositional phrases
- 17.3.2. Relative clauses
- 17.3.3. Infinitival clauses
- 17.3.4. A special case: clauses referring to a proposition
- 17.3.5. Adjectival phrases
- 17.3.6. Adverbial postmodification
- 17.4. Bibliographical notes
- 18 Projection of noun phrases III: Binominal constructions
- 18.0. Introduction
- 18.1. Binominal constructions without a preposition
- 18.2. Binominal constructions with a preposition
- 18.3. Bibliographical notes
- 19 Determiners: Articles and pronouns
- 19.0. Introduction
- 19.1. Articles
- 19.2. Pronouns
- 19.3. Bibliographical notes
- 20 Numerals and quantifiers
- 20.0. Introduction
- 20.1. Numerals
- 20.2. Quantifiers
- 20.2.1. Introduction
- 20.2.2. Universal quantifiers: ieder/elk ‘every’ and alle ‘all’
- 20.2.3. Existential quantifiers: sommige ‘some’ and enkele ‘some’
- 20.2.4. Degree quantifiers: veel ‘many/much’ and weinig ‘few/little’
- 20.2.5. Modification of quantifiers
- 20.2.6. A note on the adverbial use of degree quantifiers
- 20.3. Quantitative er constructions
- 20.4. Partitive and pseudo-partitive constructions
- 20.5. Bibliographical notes
- 21 Predeterminers
- 21.0. Introduction
- 21.1. The universal quantifier al ‘all’ and its alternants
- 21.2. The predeterminer heel ‘all/whole’
- 21.3. A note on focus particles
- 21.4. Bibliographical notes
- 22 Syntactic uses of noun phrases
- 23 Referential dependencies (binding)
- Syntax
-
- General
This section briefly introduces four aspects that will be discussed in the following sections for all types of nominalization in Table 7. Furthermore, in order to avoid unneeded redundancy we will discuss a number of general restrictions concerning the types of verb that can be used as input for nominalization.
The subsections devoted to the morphological properties of derived nouns briefly discuss the affixes (suffixes or prefixes) used and the distribution and productivity of the morphological processes by which they are derived.
The subsections on the relation between the derived noun and the base verb are mainly concerned with the effects of the derivational process, in particular concerning the inheritance of arguments (with or without a selected preposition) and the semantic roles of these arguments. The discussions of these matters will only be brief, as a more extensive discussion can be found in Chapter 2.
None of the nominalization processes in Table 7 is fully productive in the sense that it can take any (type of) main verb as input. Restrictions on the nominalization process relate to the type of input verb and, in some cases, to the thematic role(s) of the argument(s). It will be shown that the different types of deverbal noun impose different restrictions on the types of input verb they allow. For instance, whereas infinitival nominalizations (especially the bare ones) are almost fully productive, the process of er-nominalization is much more restricted, both in terms of type of input verb and in terms of the thematic role of the external argument (the subject) of the input verb. There exist also a number of general restrictions on the input verbs that are common to all types of nominalizations. Rather than discussing these in each of the following sections, the crucial points will be summarized here.
The perfect auxiliaries hebben and zijn and modal verbs like kunnen'to be able' allow only infinitival nominalization. Some examples are given in (102). The primeless examples are bare-inf nominalizations: in these cases the complements of the input verb appears as a noun phrase to the left of the derived nouns. The primed examples are det-inf nominalizations: in these cases the complements of the input verb appears as a postnominal van-PP. All other types of nominalization resist the auxiliary and modal verbs as their input.
a. | [Zoʼn boek | gelezen | hebben] | is niet genoeg | om je taalkundige | te noemen. | |
such a book | read | have | is not enough | to yourself linguist | to call | ||
'To have read such a book isnʼt enough to call yourself a linguist.' |
a'. | [Het | gelezen | hebben | van zoʼn boek ] | is ... | |
the | read | have | of such a book | is | ||
'Having read such a book is ...' |
b. | [Met een vrachtauto | kunnen | rijden] | is een voorwaarde voor deze baan. | |
with a truck | be able | drive | is a requirement for this job | ||
'To be able to drive a truck is a condition for this job.' |
b'. | [Het | kunnen rijden | met een vrachtauto] | is een voorwaarde voor deze baan. | |
the | be.able drive | with a truck | is a requirement for this job | ||
'Being able to drive a truck is a condition for this job.' |
Copular verbs allow only infinitival nominalization. As can be seen from the examples in (103), the predicate normally precedes the noun both in bare-inf and in det-inf nominalizations. It is nevertheless not hard to find on the internet det-inf nominalization in which a nominal predicate is realized as a postnominal van-PP; cf. (103a'). Realizing of a non-nominal predicate as a postverbal van-PP, as in (103b'), is categorically impossible.
a. | [(Het) | moslim | zijn] | is niet gemakkelijk | in de Westerse wereld. | |
the | Muslim | be | is not easy | in the Western world | ||
'Being a Muslim isnʼt easy in the Western world.' |
a'. | % | [Het | zijn | van | (een) | moslim] | is niet gemakkelijk | in de Westerse wereld. |
the | be | of | a | Muslim | is not easy | in the Western world | ||
'Being a Muslim isnʼt easy in the Western world.' |
b. | [(Dat) | ziek | zijn] | is geen | pretje. | |
that | ill | be | is no | fundim | ||
'Being ill is no fun.' |
b'. | * | [Het/Dat | zijn | van | ziek] | is geen | pretje. |
the/that | be | of | ill | is no | fundim |
So-called raising verbs like schijnen/lijken'to seem' and blijken'to appear' are categorically rejected as input verbs for nominalization; cf., e.g., Booij (1986b). As shown by (104), the ban on nominalization extends to infinitival nominalization, regardless of whether Subject Raising has taken place, as in (104b'), or not, as in (104a').
a. | Het | schijnt | dat | Jan ziek | is. | |
it | seems | that | Jan ill | is | ||
'It seems that Jan is ill.' |
a'. | * | (het) | schijnen | dat | Jan ziek | is |
the | seem | that | Jan ill | is |
b. | dat | Jan | ziek | schijnt | te zijn. | |
that | Jan | ill | seems | to be | ||
'that Jan seems to be ill.' |
b'. | * | (het) | ziek | schijnen | te zijn | van Jan |
the | ill | seem | to be | of Jan |
None of the nominalization types can take object-experiencer verbs as their input. Object-experiencer verbs can be divided into two groups, depending on the case assigned to the non-nominative argument in languages like German, which do express case morphologically (cf. Den Besten 1985 and references cited there): with the nom-dat verbs (cf. Section V2.1.3), the object is assigned dative case, whereas with nom-acc verbs, the object is assigned accusative case (cf. Section V2.5.1.3). Neither of these types can be nominalized.
Nom-dat verbs like lukken'to succeed' and spijten'to regret' in (105) and (106) are dyadic unaccusative verbs, whose nominative argument is not an agent but a theme (it is the object experienced). They take an experiencer NP-complement that appears in the dative case. As is shown by the primed examples, these verbs cannot be the input for bare/det-inf, ing- or ge-nominalizations.
a. | Al zijn plannen | lukken | hem. | |
all his plans | succeed | him | ||
'He succeeds in all his plans.' |
b. | * | [(Het) | hem | lukken | van al zijn plannen] | is nogal irritant. |
the | him | succeed | of all his plans | is rather annoying |
c. | * | [De | hem | lukking | van al zijn plannen] | is nogal irritant. |
the | him | succeeding | of all his plans | is rather annoying |
d. | * | [Het | hem | geluk | van al zijn plannen] | verheugde hem. |
the | him | succeeding | of all his plans | delighted him |
a. | Zijn laffe gedrag | speet | hem zeer. | |
his cowardly behavior | regretted | him much | ||
'He regretted his cowardly behavior very much.' |
b. | * | [(Het) | hem spijten | van zijn laffe gedrag] | is niet oprecht. |
the | him regret | of his cowardly behavior | is not sincere |
c. | * | [De | hem | spijting | van zijn laffe gedrag] | is niet oprecht. |
the | him | regretting | of his cowardly behavior | is not sincere |
d. | * | [Het | hem | gespijt | van zijn laffe gedrag] | is nooit oprecht. |
the | him | regretting | of his cowardly behavior | is never sincere |
Er-nominalization is also excluded, which is of course due to the fact that the resulting noun must refer to the agent of the input verb, which is lacking with these verbs. So even for those nom-dat verbs that have a +human subject, er-nominalization is excluded. This is illustrated in (107) for the nom-dat verbs opvallen'to strike' and bevallen'to please'.
a. | De man | viel | haar | op | (door zijn gedrag). | |
the man | struck | her | prt. | by his behavior | ||
'The man struck her (because of his behavior).' |
a'. | * | een | haar | opvaller | (door zijn gedrag) |
a | her | strik-er | by his behavior |
b. | De nieuwe werknemer | beviel | ons | goed. | |
the new employee | pleased | us | well | ||
'We were pleased with the new employee.' |
b'. | * | een | ons | goede | bevaller |
an | us | good | pleas-er |
The nom-acc verbs, which are also known as psych-verbs, take an accusative object. As in the case of nom-dat verbs, the object has the thematic role of experiencer (it is the argument who experiences the psychological state denoted by the verb), while the subject does not perform the role of agent. Examples with the psych-verbs amuseren'to amuse' and ergeren'to irritate' are given in (108) and (109). As can be seen, neither bare/det-inf nor ing- nor ge-nominalization of these verbs is possible.
a. | Dat boek/Hij | amuseerde | mij | zeer. | |
that book/he | amused | me | much |
b. | * | [(Het) | mij | amuseren | van/door dat boek/hem] | was de bedoeling. |
the | me | amuse | of/by the book/him | was the intention |
c. | * | [De | amusering | van/door | dat boek/hem] | was de bedoeling. |
the | amusing | of/by | the book/him | was the intention |
d. | * | [Zijn | geamuseer | van mij] | was de bedoeling. |
his | amusing | of me | was the intention |
a. | * | Dat boek/Hij | ergert | Marie. |
that book/he | irritates | Marie |
b. | * | [(Het) | Marie ergeren | van/door | dat boek/hem] | verbaast | mij. |
the | Marie irritate | of/by | that book/him | surprises | me |
c. | * | [De | ergering | van Marie | van/door | dat boek/hem] | verbaast | mij. |
the | irritating | of Marie | of/by | that book/him | surprises | me |
d. | * | [Zijn | ge-erger | van Marie] | verbaast | mij. |
his | irritating | of Marie | surprises | me |
As in the case of nom-dat verbs, nom-acc verbs cannot constitute the input to er-nominalization. This is shown in (110) for the +human versions of examples (108a) and (109b). These examples again suggest that it is the lack of agentivity of the subject that plays a role here, and not the animacy of the subject.
a. | * | een | <mij> | amuseerder | <van mij> |
a | me | amus-er | of me |
b. | * | een | <Marie> | ergeraar | <van Marie> |
a | Marie | irritat-er | of Marie |
Nominalization results in forms that have the syntactic distribution of a noun. However, these forms retain a number of the syntactic and semantic characteristics of the input verb. They are in a sense a hybrid category, partly nominal and partly verbal. For each type of nominalization, we will discuss the degree of verbalness/nominalness on the basis of the features in Table 8; cf. Dik (1985a), and also Hoekstra & Wehrmann (1985).
verbal properties | presence of arguments |
prenominal theme/recipient with objective case | |
prenominal recipient-PP | |
adverbial modification | |
nominal properties | adjectival modification |
theme with genitive case | |
theme/recipient realized as postnominal PP | |
definiteness | |
indefiniteness | |
quantification | |
pluralization |
It will turn out that er-nominalizations come closest to what may be thought of as prototypical nouns in the sense that they have all the relevant nominal properties, with the addition of one verbal feature, namely the presence of arguments. Bare infinitival nominalizations, on the other hand, retain almost all verbal features, while exhibiting none of the listed nominal characteristics. They are nominal in the sense that they have the distribution of nouns and that they lack the grammatical features of verbs such as tense or number agreement. The other types of nominalizations hold an intermediate position. The overall picture of nominal and verbal characteristics of deverbal nouns is presented in Section 1.3.1.6.
- 1985The ergative hypothesis and free word order in Dutch and GermanToman, Jindřich (ed.)Studies in German GrammarDordrecht/CinnaminsonForis Publications23-65
- 1986Form and meaning in morphology: the case of Dutch 'agent nouns'Linguistics24503-518
- 1985Nederlandse nominalisaties in een Functionele GrammaticaForum der Letteren2681-107
- 1985De nominale infinitiefGLOT8257-275
